Medical Attributes of Panax spp. - Ginseng

by Tye Patchana, Allison Otis, and Joann Phillips
Wilkes University
Wilkes-Barre, PA

May, 2009
Ginseng is the common name of Panax sp., a deciduous perennial herb of the family Araliaceae ( Yun, 2001).  Biologists recognize eight species of ginseng.  Seven are in the genus Panax and one is in the genus Eleutherococcus.  Within the Panax genus, two species are especially important in herbal medicine: Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolius.  The oriental species or red ginseng (Panax ginseng) is native to Manchuria, Korea, and Siberia, and central China.  Panax quinquefolius is the American or white ginseng that is native to North America, primarily the eastern regions, however due to over- cultivation, many populations in these areas are in decline (Anon., 2004).

Panax has been in use as a medicinal herb for thousands of years and is one of the most widely taken herbals in the world (Kennedy and Scholey, 2003).  It is most notable for its use as an herbal specified by the common name “ginseng” and is used both as a health supplement and therapeutic.  Ancient Chinese culture valued the man-shaped root, from where ginseng (jen-shen in Chinese, literally “in the image of man”) derives its name (Harrison, 2000).  Within traditional Chinese medicine, ginseng has been used to treat and prevent a variety of pathological conditions and illnesses such as hypodynamia, anorexia, shortness of breath, palpitation, insomnia, impotence, hemorrhage and diabetes (Xiang et. al, 2008).  Use of Panax ranges from supplementation of general health and wellness, to potential treatments and therapeutics for a variety of pathologies as indicated by current research.

Use in America has had a shorter history, being domesticated in the late 1800s. From that time until the 1980s, most has been exported to East Asia. However, it was overharvested in the 1970s and deemed endangered. It is regulated currently by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). Nonetheless, ginseng still maintains great medicinal and therapeutic value (Carlson, 1986).

Traditionally, therapeutic compounds are extracted from primarily the roots, and include triterpene saponin compounds called ginsenosides, found in both the red and white species of Panax.  Extractions are best done by ultrasound, found to be simpler and more effective than traditional methods such as reflux boiling (Jianyong, Lidong, and Foo-tim, 2001).  Specifically in the American ginseng plant, the leaf is the best available source of ginsenosides followed by the root-hair, rhizome, root, and stem (Qu et al, 2009).

Ginsenosides are the therapeutic chemical constituents that have been shown to produce a wide array of benefits.  These include an enhanced ability of arteries to tolerate stress thus inhibiting pathological effects (Maslov and Lishmanov, 2008).  Neurologically, is has been suggested that a single dose of an herbal treatment of Panax causes cognitive effects in humans regarding memory and modulates cerebroelectrical activity, while chronic use in animals have shown improvements via modulation in stress, fatigue, and learning (Kennedy and Scholey, 2003).  Also, newer compounds within Panax may contain translational and ribonuclease inhibiting properties that may be beneficial as both an anti-bacterial and anti-viral treatment (Tzi Bun and Hexiang, 2001). The North American species of Panax has also been found to contain some antioxidant properties that limit the effect of free radicals (Kitts, Wijewickreme, and Hu, 2000).

Current research indicates potential use of ginseng in cognition, cardiovascular effects, diabetes, and cancer.  The ginsenosides, found in both the white and red species, play different roles in different organs of the body and have shown the potential to prevent certain cancers, especially gastric (Kim, 2008).  Individual ginsenosides are known to cease cell growth in tumors and inhibit metastasis.  They have also been shown to stimulate cell differentiation, and better regulate apoptosis (Varjas et al., 2009).  In clinical trials, patients that were exposed to carcinogens leading to an increase of antiapoptotic genes, experienced suppression of such expression after consumption of ginseng.  This supports the efficacy of ginseng compounds in interfering with carcinogenesis and ultimately, aiding the prevention of some cancerous diseases (Varjas et al, 2009).

Ginseng root also contains a ginsenoside called Rg1 that possesses estrogenic effects.  Studies that tested how exactly Rg1 exerts estrogenic effects, determined that the estrogen actions of Rg1 in human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells are mediated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway (Lau, 2009).

American Ginseng is responsible for exhibiting antioxidant properties and targeting inflammation, which has been shown through in vitro studies, in which American Ginseng extract was given prior to colitis induction and following the onset of colitis.  Results indicated that the use of Panax, specifically American ginseng, is important in the prevention and treatment of ulcerative colitis (Jin et al., 2008).  American Ginseng is also responsible for downregulating inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (markers of inflammation) and p53 (induced by inflammatory stress).  Moreover, American Ginseng extract is capable of inhibiting leukocyte activation and subsequent epithelial cell DNA damage in vitro and in vivo (Jin et al, 2008).
Ginseng has proven efficacy in the management of diabetes, and remains one of the most studied herbal remedies for diabetes (Vuksan and Sievenpiper, 2005).  Ginseng extract has been shown to improve glycemia in Type II diabetes patients, and more recent studies with rats have shown that ginseng and insulin together inhibit lipolysis by 49% compared with basal values.  This suggests that ginseng exerts an antilipolytic effect differently than insulin does, through a completely different signaling pathway (Hong, Reaves, and Eden, 2006).

Evidence resulting from a clinical study indicates that Panax has been shown to be clinically effective in the memory function and cognitive performance of Alzheimer Disease, suggesting its protective and trophic effects in respect to the functionality of the brain (Lee et al., 2008).

While a few common adverse reactions are widespread, more serious adverse reactions to Panax are both spontaneous and isolated (Coon and Ernst, 2002). Examples of isolated cases include both reactions in conjunction with phenelzine, a monoamine oxide inhibiter, otherwise known as the anti-depressant Nardil, which show symptoms such as headache and tremulousness (Anon., 1986).  More common adverse reaction effects include headaches as well as sleep and gastrointestinal disorders (Coon and Ernst, 2002).

As indicated, evidence concerning the efficacy of Ginseng differs amongst traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), modern pharmacological experiments and clinical trials.  Through modern pharmacological experiments Ginseng has been proved to possess multiple compounds that have antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antiapoptotic and immunostimulant properties (Xiang et. al, 2008).  With continuing research, a better understanding of Ginseng and its other potential benefits in respect to health and treatment can be made possible.  

 

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous.  1987.  Interaction of ginseng with phenelzine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7(3): 201

Anonymous.  2004.  Panax quinequefolius L. ginseng. Michigan State University Dept. of Natural Resources. http://web4.msue.msu.edu/mnfi/abstracts/botany/Panax_quinquefolius.pdf

Buettner C., G.Y. Yeh, R.S. Phillips, M.A. Mittleman, & T.J. Kaptchuk. 2006. Systematic review of the effects of ginseng on cardiovascular risk factors. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy.  40:83-95.

Carlson, W A.  1986.  Ginseng: America’s botanical drug connection to the orient. Economic Botany. 40(2):233-249.

Coon, J.T. & E. Ernst. 2002. Panax ginseng: A systematic review of adverse effects and drug interactions., 25(5): 323-344.

Harrison H.C., J.L Parke, E.A. Oelke, A.R. Kaminski, B.D. Hudelson, L.J. Martin, K.A. Kelling, & L.K. Binning. 2000. Ginseng. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/AFCM/ginseng.html

Hong W., L. Reaves, & N. Edens. 2006. Ginseng extract inhibits lipolysis in rat adipocytes in vitro by activating phosphodiesterase 4. The Journal of Nutrition 136:337-342.

Jianyong W., L. Lidong, & C. Foo-tim. 2001. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of ginseng saponins from ginseng roots and cultured ginseng cells. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry.  8(4): 347-372.

Jin Y., V.S. Kotakadi, L. Ying, et. al.  2008.  American ginseng suppresses inflammation and DNA damage associated with mouse colitis.  Carcinogenesis 29:  2351-9.  

Kennedy, D. & A. Scholey. 2003.  Ginseng: potential for  the enhancement of cognitive performance and mood. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 75(3): 687-700.

Kim J. 2008. Protective effects of Asian dietary items on cancers- soy and ginseng. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention 9:543-8.

Kitts, D., A. Wijewickreme, & C. Hu. 2000. Antioxidant properties of a North American ginseng extract. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 203(1-2):1-10.

Lau W., W. Chen, R. Chan, D. Guo, & M. Wong. 2009. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway mediates the oestrogen-like activities of ginsenoside Rg1 in human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells.  British Journal of Pharmacology.

Lee S.T., K. Chu, J.Y. Sim, J.H. Heo, & M. Kim. 2008.  Panax ginseng enhances cognitive performance in Alzheimer disease.  Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders 22:  222-6.

Maslov, L. & I. Lishmanov. 2008. Vascular effects of ginseng compounds. Eksp. Klin. Farmakol. 71(5): 58-68.

Qu, C., Y. Bai, X. Jin, Y. Wang, K. Zhang, J. You, & H. Zhang. 2009. Study on ginsenosides in different parts and ages of Panax quinquefolius L. Food Chemistry. 115 (1): 340-346.

Tzi Bun, N. & W. Hexiang. 2001.  Panaxagin, a new protein from Chinese ginseng possesses anti-fungal, anti-viral, translation-inhibiting and ribonuclease activities. Life Sciences. 68 (7): 739-749.

Varjas T., G. Nowrasteh, F. Budan, E. Nadasi, G. Horvath, S. Makai, T. Gracza, J. Cseh, & I. Ember. 2009. Chemopreventive effect of Panax ginseng. Phytotherapy Research: PTR.

Vuksan V. & J. Sievenpiper. 2005. Herbal remedies in the management of diabetes:  Lessons learned from the study of ginseng. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases  15: 149-60.

Xiang Y.Z., H.C. Shang, X.M. Gao, & B.L. Zhang.  2008.  A comparison of the ancient use of ginseng in traditional Chinese medicine with modern pharmacological experiments and clinical trials.  Phytotherapy Research 22: 851-8.

Yun, T.K. 2001. Brief introduction to Panax ginseng C.A Meyer. The Korean Academy of Medical Science. 16: S3-5

This paper was developed as part of the BIO 368 - Medical Botany course offered at Wilkes University during the spring of 2009. Course instructor was Kenneth M. Klemow, Ph.D. (kenneth.klemow@wilkes.edu). The information contained herein is based on published sources, and is made available for academic purposes only. No warrantees, expressed or implied, are made about the medical usefulness or dangers associated with the plant species in question.

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This page posted and maintained by Kenneth M. Klemow, Ph.D., Biology Department, Wilkes University, Wilkes-Barre, PA 18766. (570) 408-4758, kenneth.klemow@wilkes.edu.